# Area of Torricelli’s Trumpet or Gabriel’s Horn, Sum of the Reciprocals of the Primes, Factorials of Negative Integers

Abstract. In our previous work [1], we defined the method for computing general limits of functions at their singular points and showed that it is useful for calculating divergent integrals, the sum of divergent series and values of functions in their singular points. In this paper, we have described that method and we will use it to calculate the area of Torricelli’s trumpet or Gabriel’s horn, the sum of the reciprocals of the primes and factorials of negative integers.

1. Introduction

Divergent series and divergent integrals have appeared in mathematics for a long time. Mathematicians have devised various means of assigning finite values to such series and integrals, although intuition suggests that the answer is infinity or it does not exist. Method for computing general limits of functions at their singular points, discovered in our previous work [1], will permit us to use the method of partial sums for calculating sums of divergent series and Newton – Leibniz formula for calculating divergent integrals, which is the new and surprising result. We also showed that our method is the strongest method around for summing divergent series and it is superior to other known methods; for more details we refer the reader to [2]. As for prerequisites, the reader is expected to be familiar with real and complex analysis in one variable.

In Section 2 we describe the method for computing general limits of functions at their singular points and show how that method may be used for assigning finite values to divergent series and divergent integrals. In this section, we present definitions and theorems with proofs because paper, [1] where the method is discovered, is not written in English.

In Sections 3, 4 and 5 we have compiled some of the standard facts on an area of Torricelli’s trumpet or Gabriel’s horn, the sum of the reciprocals of the primes and factorials of negative integers, respectively. In those sections, we assign finite values to an infinite area of Torricelli’s trumpet or Gabriel’s horn, the sum of divergent series of the reciprocals of the primes and Gamma function at their singular points, respectively. Gamma function extends factorials to real and even complex numbers. The gamma function is undefined for zero and negative integers, from which we can conclude that factorials of negative integers do not exist.

2. Method for Computing General Limits of Functions at Their Singular Points

Definition 2.1 Let ${f}$ be a function and has a series expansion about the point ${a \in {\mathbb C}\bigcup\infty}$. We will denote by ${\lim_{z\rightarrow a}^D f(z)}$ the general limit of function ${f}$ at point ${a}$ and define

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow a}^D f(z)=c,$

where ${c}$ is constant term of any series expansion of ${f}$ about ${a}$.

Example 2.1 The series expansions of ${\sin z}$, ${\cos z}$ and ${e^z}$ at infinity are same these functions and we considered that constant terms of their series expansions are ${0}$. By previous definition,

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow \infty}^D \sin z=\lim_{z\rightarrow \infty}^D \cos z=\lim_{z\rightarrow \infty}^D e^z=0.$

Example 2.2 Let us find the general limit of Riemann zeta function as z approaches 1. The Laurent series expansions of a function ${\zeta(z)}$ about ${z=1}$ is the series ${\frac{1}{z-1}+}$ ${\gamma-}$ ${\gamma _1(z-1)+}$ ${\frac{1}{2}\gamma _2(z-1)^2-}$ ${\frac{1}{6}\gamma_3(z-1)^3+}$ ${\frac{1}{24}\gamma_4(z-1)^4+}$ ${O((z-1)^5)}$, where ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant and ${\gamma_n}$ is the nth Stieltjes constant. By previous definition,

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow 1}^D \zeta(z)=\gamma.$

Definition 2.2 Let ${f}$ be a function and has a series expansion about the point ${\infty}$. We will denote by ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)}f(z)}$, ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^+}f(z)}$ and ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^-}f(z)}$ the general limit, upper general limit and lower general limit of a function f(z) as z approaches to ${\infty}$ over radial line ${l_{\alpha, \infty}=\{r\cdot e^{i\alpha}|r\in {\mathbb R}\}}$, ${\alpha\in[0,2\pi)}$, respectively, and define

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^+}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow+e^{i\alpha}\infty}f(z)=$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{r\rightarrow\infty(0)^+}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha})=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow +\infty}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha}),$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^-}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow-e^{i\alpha}\infty}f(z)=$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{r\rightarrow\infty(0)^-}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha})=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow -\infty}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha}),$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)}f(z)=\frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^+}f(z)+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^-}f(z))=$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{r\rightarrow\infty(0)}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha}).$

Definition 2.3 Let ${f}$ be a function and has a series expansion about the point ${a\in{\mathbb C}}$. We will denote by ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)}$, ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)}$ and ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z)}$ the general limit, upper general limit and lower general limit of a function f(z) as z approaches to ${a}$ over radial line ${l_{\alpha,a}=\{a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha}|r\in {\mathbb R}\}}$, ${\alpha\in[0,2\pi)}$, respectively, and define

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a+e^{i\alpha 0}}f(z)=$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0(0)^+}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha})=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^+}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha}),$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a-e^{i\alpha 0}}f(z)=$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0(0)^-}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha})=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^-}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha}),$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)=\frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z))=$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0(0)}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha}).$

Definition 2.4 Let ${f}$ be a function and has a pole of order ${m\in {\mathbb N}}$ at ${a \in {\mathbb C}\bigcup\infty}$. Define

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow +\infty}^D P_n(z)=\int_{-1}^0 P_n(z) dz,$

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow -\infty}^D P_n(z)=\int_0^1 P_n(z) dz,$

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow \infty(0)}^D P_n(z)=\frac{1}{2}\int_{-1}^1 P_n(z) dz,$

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow 0^{+}}^D P_n\Big(\frac{1}{z}\Big)=\int_{-\infty}^{-1} P_n\Big(\frac{1}{z}\Big)\cdot\frac{1}{z^2} dz,$

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow 0^{-}}^D P_n\Big(\frac{1}{z}\Big)=\int_1^{+\infty} P_n\Big(\frac{1}{z}\Big)\cdot\frac{1}{z^2} dz,$

$\displaystyle lim_{z\rightarrow 0(0)}^D P_n\Big(\frac{1}{z}\Big)=\frac{1}{2}\int_{1}^{-1} P_n\Big(\frac{1}{z}\Big)\cdot\frac{1}{z^2} dz,$

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}^{D}f(z)=\lim_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}^{D} F_1(z)+c_0,$

where ${P_n(z)=a_nz^n+a_{n-1}z^{n-1}+\cdot \cdot \cdot +a_1z+a_0}$ is polynomial of degree ${n\geq 0}$, ${c_0}$ is a constant term and ${F_1(z)}$ is the principal part of a Laurent series expansion of ${f}$ at ${a}$.

Example 2.3 Let us find the general limit of a Riemann zeta function as z approaches 1 over radial line ${l_{0, 1}}$, where ${l_{0, 1}}$ is real axis. The Laurent series expansions of a function ${\zeta(z)}$ about ${z=1}$ is the series ${\frac{1}{z-1}+}$ ${\gamma-}$ ${\gamma_1(z-1)+}$ ${\frac{1}{2}\gamma_2(z-1)^2-}$ ${\frac{1}{6}\gamma_3(z-1)^3+}$ ${\frac{1}{24}\gamma _4(z-1)^4+}$ ${O((z-1)^5)}$, where ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant and ${\gamma_n}$ is the nth Stieltjes constant. By previous definitions,

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow 1(0)}^D \zeta(z)=\lim_{z\rightarrow 1(0)}^D\frac{1}{z-1}+\gamma=\lim_{r\rightarrow 0(0)}^D\frac{1}{1+r-1}+\gamma=$

$\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}\int_{1}^{-1} \frac{1}{r}\cdot\frac{1}{r^2} dr+\gamma=0+\gamma=\gamma.$

Example 2.4 Let us find the sum of divergent series ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}1=1+1+1+1+\cdot\cdot\cdot +1+\cdot\cdot\cdot}$. Thus, by previous definition,

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}1=\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}\sum_{n=1}^m 1=\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}m=\int_{-1}^0 m dm=\frac{-1}{2}.$

Example 2.5 Let us find the sum of divergent series ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}n^k=1^k+2^k+3^k+4^k+\cdot\cdot\cdot +m^k+\cdot\cdot\cdot}$, where ${k}$ is positive integer. By Faulhaber’s formula, ${\sum_{n=1}^{m}n^k=\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{n=0}^k (-1)^n{{k+1}\choose{n}} B_n m^{k+1-n}}$ since ${B_1=-\frac{1}{2}}$, where ${B_n}$ denotes the nth Bernoulli number. Therefore ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}n^k= \lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}\sum_{n=1}^m n^k=}$ ${\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}(\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{n=0}^k (-1)^n{{k+1}\choose{n}} B_n m^{k+1-n})=}$ ${\int_{-1}^0(\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{n=0}^k (-1)^n{{k+1}\choose{n}} B_n m^{k+1-n})dm=}$ ${\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{n=0}^k (-1)^n{{k+1}\choose{n}} B_n \int_{-1}^0 m^{k+1-n}dm=}$ ${-\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{n=0}^k (-1)^n{{k+1}\choose{n}} B_n \frac{(-1)^{k+2-n}}{k+2-n}=}$ ${-\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{n=0}^k {{k+1}\choose{n}} B_n \frac{(-1)^{k}}{k+2-n}=}$ ${\frac{(-1)^{k}}{k+1}\cdot(-\sum_{n=0}^k {{k+1}\choose{n}} \frac{B_n}{k+2-n})=}$ ${\frac{(-1)^{k}}{k+1}\cdot B_{k+1}}$ by recurrence equation for Bernoulli numbers and previous definition. We have

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}n^k=-\frac{B_{k+1}}{k+1}$

since ${k\in {\mathbb N}}$, because the odd Bernoulli numbers are zero.

Theorem 2.1 If ${f}$ is a function and has a pole of order 1 at ${a \in {\mathbb C}\bigcup\infty}$ and if ${c_0}$ is a constant term of a Laurent series expansion of ${f}$ at ${a}$, then

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)=c_0,\ \alpha\in[0,2\pi).$

Proof: By previous definition, ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)=}$ ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}F_1(z)+c_0=}$ ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}\frac{c_{-1}}{z-a}+c_0=}$ ${\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0(0)}\frac{c_{-1}}{a+re^{i\alpha}-a}+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2}\int_1^{-1}\frac{c_{-1}}{re^{i\alpha}}\cdot\frac{1}{r^2}dr+c_0=}$ ${\frac{c_{-1}}{2e^{i\alpha}}\int_1^{-1}\frac{1}{r^3}dr+c_0}$. Similarly we can prove that the theorem holds for ${a=\infty}$. $\Box$

Example 2.6 Let us find the general limit of a Gamma function, denoted by ${\Gamma(z)}$, as z approaches 0 over radial line ${l_{0, 0}}$, where ${l_{0, 0}}$ is real axis. The Laurent series expansions of a function ${\Gamma(z)}$ about ${z=0}$ is the series ${\frac{1}{z}-}$ ${\gamma+}$ ${\frac{1}{12}(6\gamma^2+\pi^2)z+}$ ${\frac{1}{6}z^2(-\gamma^3-\frac{\gamma\pi^2}{2}+}$ ${\mit\psi^{(2)}(1))+}$ ${\frac{1}{24}z^3(\gamma^4+\gamma^2\pi^2+\frac{3\pi^4}{20}-4\gamma\mit\psi^{(2)}(1))+}$ ${\frac{1}{1440}z^4(-12\gamma^5-20\gamma^3\pi^2-9\gamma\pi^4+120\gamma^2\mit\psi^{(2)}(1)+}$ ${20\pi^2\mit\psi^{(2)}(1)+12\mit\psi^{(4)}(1))+O(z^5)}$, where ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant and ${\mit\psi^{(2)}(z)}$ is the nth derivative of the digamma function. By previous theorem,

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow 0(0)}^D \Gamma(z)=\lim_{z\rightarrow 0}^D \Gamma(z)=-\gamma.$

Definition 2.5 Let ${f}$ be a function and has a series expansion about the point ${a \in {\mathbb C}\bigcup\infty}$ and does not have a pole at ${a}$.

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)=c\ (\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z)=c)$

if ${\lim_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)}$ ${(\lim_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z))}$ is infinite or does not exist, where ${c}$ is a constant term of any series expansion of ${f}$ about ${a}$; otherwise

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)=\lim_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)$

$\displaystyle (\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z)=\lim_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z)).$

Example 2.7 Let us find the sum of the harmonic series which are divergent. We have ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{n}=\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}\sum_{n=1}^m \frac{1}{n}=\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}H_m}$, where ${H_m}$ is harmonic number. Therefore, by previous definition,

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{n}=\gamma,$

where ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant, because the series expansions of a function ${H_m}$ about ${m=\infty}$ is the series ${(\gamma-\ln(\frac{1}{m}))+}$ ${\frac{1}{2m}-}$ ${\frac{1}{12m^2}+}$ ${\frac{1}{120m^4}-}$ ${\frac{1}{252m^6}+}$ ${O((\frac{1}{m})^7)}$, where ${\ln(z)}$ is natural logarithm.

Example 2.8 Let us find the sum of divergent series ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}(n-1)!=0!+1!+2!+3!+\cdot\cdot\cdot +(n-1)!+\cdot\cdot\cdot}$. We have ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}(n-1)!=}$ ${\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}\sum_{n=1}^m (n-1)!=}$ ${\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}(-1)^m m!!(-m-1)+!(-2)+1}$, where ${n!!}$ is the double factorial function and ${!n}$ is subfactorial function. Therefore, by previous definition,

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}(n-1)!\approx 0.697175 + 1.15573 \cdot i,$

because the constant term of a series expansion of function ${(-1)^m m!!(-m-1)+!(-2)+1}$ about ${\infty}$ are ${1+\frac{\Gamma(-1,-1)}{e}=}$ ${0.69717488323506606876547868191955159531717543095436951732...+}$ ${1.1557273497909217179100931833126962991208510231644158204... \cdot i}$, where ${\Gamma(a,z)}$ is the incomplete gamma function.

Example 2.9 Let us find the finite value of divergent integral ${\int_0^{+\infty} \sin x dx}$. We have ${\int_0^{+\infty} \sin x dx=}$ ${(-\cos x)|_0^{+\infty}=}$ ${\lim^D_{x\rightarrow+\infty}(-\cos x)+\cos 0}$. Thus, by previous definition,

$\displaystyle \int_0^{+\infty} \sin x dx=0+1=1,$

because the series expansions of ${-\cos x}$ at ${\infty}$ are ${-\cos x=-\cos x+0}$.

Example 2.10 Let us find the finite value of divergent integral ${\int_0^{+\infty} \ln x \sin x dx}$, where ${\ln x}$ is natural logarithm. We have ${\int_0^{+\infty} \ln x \sin x dx=}$ ${(Ci(x)-\ln x \cos x) |_0^{+\infty}=}$ ${\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}^D(Ci(x)-\ln x \cos x)-}$ ${\lim_{x\rightarrow 0}^D(Ci(x)-\ln x \cos x)=}$ ${0-\gamma=}$ ${-\gamma}$, where ${Ci(x)}$ is cosine integral and ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant. Thus, by previous definition,

$\displaystyle \int_0^{+\infty} \ln x \sin x dx=0-\gamma=-\gamma,$

because the series expansions of ${Ci(x)-\ln x\cos x}$ at ${\infty}$ are ${\cos x(\ln\frac{1}{x}+}$ ${O((\frac{1}{x})^7))+}$ ${\cos x(-(\frac{1}{x})^2+}$ ${\frac{6}{x^4}-}$ ${\frac{120}{x^6}+}$ ${O((\frac{1}{x})^7))+}$ ${\sin x(\frac{1}{x}-}$ ${\frac{2}{x^3}+}$ ${\frac{24}{x^5}+}$ ${O((\frac{1}{x})^7))+}$ ${O((\frac{1}{x})^9)-}$ ${i\pi\lfloor\frac{1}{2}-}$ ${\frac{arg(x)}{\pi}\rfloor+0}$ and the series expansions of ${Ci(x)-\ln x\cos x}$ at ${0}$ are ${\gamma+}$ ${\frac{1}{4}x^2(2\ln x-1)+}$ ${\frac{1}{96}x^4(1-4\ln x)+}$ ${\frac{1}{4320}x^6(6\ln x-1)+}$ ${O(x^7)}$.

Theorem 2.2 If ${f}$ is a function and has a pole of order ${m\in {\mathbb N}}$ at ${a \in {\mathbb C}\bigcup\infty}$ and if ${c_0}$ is a constant term of a Laurent series expansion of ${f}$ at ${a}$, then ${lim_{z\rightarrow a}^D f(z)}$ is a mean value of general limits ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)}$, ${\alpha\in[0,2\pi)}$.

Proof: Let us first prove that the theorem holds for ${a \in {\mathbb C}}$. By previous definitions and the first mean value theorem for definite integrals, ${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a}f(z)=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi}\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)d\alpha=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi} \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}F_1(z)d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi} \frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}F_1(z)+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}F_1(z))d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi} \frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^+}F_1(a+re^{i\alpha})+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}F_1(a+re^{i\alpha}))d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi} \frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^+}\sum_{k=-m}^{-1}c_k(a+re^{i\alpha}-a)^k+\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^+}\sum_{k=-m}^{-1}c_k(a+re^{i\alpha}-a)^k)d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi} \frac{1}{2}(\int_{-\infty}^{-1}\sum_{k=-m}^{-1}c_k(re^{i\alpha})^kdr+\int_1^{+\infty}\sum_{k=-m}^{-1}c_k(re^{i\alpha})^kdr)d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\int_0^{2\pi}\frac{1}{2}\sum_{k=-n}^{-1} c_k \frac{1+(-1)^k}{-k+1} e^{i\alpha k}d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${\frac{1}{2\pi}\cdot\frac{1}{2}\sum_{k=-n}^{-1} c_k \frac{1+(-1)^k}{-k+1} \int_0^{2\pi}e^{i\alpha k}d\alpha+c_0=}$ ${0+c_0=c_0}$, where ${F_1(z)}$ is the principal part of a Laurent series expansion of ${f}$ at ${a}$. Similarly we can prove that the theorem holds for ${a=\infty}$. $\Box$

3. Area of Torricelli’s Trumpet or Gabriel’s Horn

Torricelli’s Trumpet, also called Gabriel’s Horn, a mathematical figure that stretched to infinity but was not infinitely big is the surface of revolution obtained by rotating the graph of the function ${f(x)=\frac{1}{x}}$ on the interval ${[1,\infty)}$ around the ${x}$-axis. Using integration, it is possible to find the surface area A:

$\displaystyle A=2\pi\int_1^{+\infty}\frac{1}{x}\cdot\sqrt{1+\Big[\Big(\frac{1}{x}\Big)'\Big]^2}dx=2\pi\int_1^{+\infty}\frac{1}{x}\cdot\sqrt{1+\frac{1}{x^4}}dx\geq$

$\displaystyle 2\pi\int_1^{+\infty}\frac{1}{x}dx=+\infty.$

Let us find the finite value of divergent integral ${A=2\pi\int_1^{+\infty}\frac{1}{x}\cdot\sqrt{1+\frac{1}{x^4}}dx}$. We have ${2\pi\int_1^{+\infty}\frac{1}{x}\cdot\sqrt{1+\frac{1}{x^4}}dx=}$ ${2\pi\left(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}x^2\sinh ^{-1}\left(x^2\right)}{2\sqrt{x^4+1}}-\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}\right)\Big|_1^{+\infty}.}$ Thus, ${\lim^D_{x\rightarrow +\infty}2\pi\Big(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}x^2\sinh^{-1}(x^2)}{2\sqrt{x^4+1}}-\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}\Big)-}$ ${\lim_{x\rightarrow 1}2\pi\Big(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}x^2\sinh^{-1}(x^2)}{2\sqrt{x^4+1}}-\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}\Big)=}$ ${\frac{1}{2}\pi\ln(4)-\pi-2\pi(\frac{1}{2}\sinh ^{-1}(1)-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}})\approx 0.70996}$, where ${\ln(z)}$ is natural logarithm and ${\sinh^{-1}(z)}$ is the inverse hyperbolic sine function, because the series expansions of ${2 \pi \Big(\frac{\sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}x^2\sinh^{-1}(x^2)}{2\sqrt{x^4+1}}-\frac{1}{2} \sqrt{\frac{1}{x^4}+1}\Big)}$ at ${\infty}$ are ${(-2\pi\ln(\frac{1}{x})-\pi+\frac{1}{2}\pi\ln(4))-\frac{\pi}{4x^4}+\frac{\pi}{32x^8}+O((\frac{1}{x})^{11})}$. This gives

$\displaystyle A=0.70995...$

.

4. Sum of the Reciprocals of the Primes

The sum of the reciprocals of all prime numbers diverges. This was proved by Leonhard Euler in 1737, and strengthens Euclid’s 3rd-century-BC result that there are infinitely many prime numbers. We will denote by ${p_n}$ nth prime number. Let us find the sum of series ${\sum_{n=1}^{+\infty}\frac{1}{p_n}}$. We have ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{p_n}=\lim^D_{m\rightarrow+\infty}\sum_{n=1}^m \frac{1}{p_n}=\lim^D_{s\rightarrow 1}P(s)}$, where ${P(s)\equiv\displaystyle\sum_{p\ is\ prime}\frac{1}{p^s}}$ is the prime zeta function. For ${s}$ close to 1, ${P(s)}$ has the expansion ${P(1+\epsilon)=-\ln\epsilon+C+O(\epsilon)}$, where ${\epsilon\geq 0}$ and ${C=\sum_{n=2}^{+\infty} \frac{\mu(n)}{n}\ln\zeta(n)=}$ ${M-\gamma=0.261497212...-0.577215664...=}$ ${-0.315718452...}$, where ${M}$ is Meissel-Mertens constant, ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant, ${\mu(n)}$ is the M\“{o}bius function, ${\zeta(n)}$ is the Riemann zeta function and ${\ln(z)}$ is natural logarithm. Therefore, ${\sum_{n=1}^{+\infty}\frac{1}{p_n}=\lim^D_{\epsilon\rightarrow 0}P(1+\epsilon)=\lim^D_{\epsilon\rightarrow 0}(-\ln\epsilon+C+O(\epsilon))=C}$ because the series expansions of a function ${-\ln\epsilon+C+O(\epsilon)}$ about ${\epsilon=0}$ is the series ${(C+\ln (\epsilon))+O\left(\epsilon^1\right)}$. This gives

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{+\infty}\frac{1}{p_n}=M-\gamma=-0.315718452...$

.

5. Factorials of Negative Integers

The gamma function was first introduced by Leonhard Euler in his goal to generalize the factorial to non integer values. The (complete) gamma function ${\Gamma(z)=\int_0^{+\infty}x^{z-1}e^{-x}dx}$ is defined to be an extension of the factorial to complex and real number arguments. It is analytic everywhere except at ${z=0, -1, -2, ...}$, where it has a poles of order 1. It is related to the factorial by ${\Gamma(n+1)=(n)!}$ as special case of functional equation ${\Gamma(z+1)=z\Gamma(z)}$. Gamma function is not the only solution of the previous functional equation. Let us find the factorials of negative numbers as the general limit of a gamma function as ${z}$ approaches ${-n}$, where ${n}$ are positive integers. We have ${(-n)!=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow -n}\Gamma(z)=c(n)}$, where ${c(n)}$ denote the constant term of the Laurent series expansion of a function ${\Gamma(z)}$ about ${z=-n}$. This gives

$\displaystyle (-1)!=-1+\gamma,$

$\displaystyle (-2)!=\frac{3}{4}-\frac{\gamma}{2},$

$\displaystyle (-3)!=-\frac{11}{36}+\frac{\gamma}{6},$

$\displaystyle (-4)!=\frac{25}{288}-\frac{\gamma}{24},$

…, where ${\gamma}$ is Euler-Mascheroni constant.

References

[1] Sinisa Bubonja, General Method for Summing Divergent Series. Determination of Limits of Divergent Sequences and Functions in Singular Points, Preprint, viXra:1502.0074

[2] Sinisa Bubonja, General Method for Summing Divergent Series Using Mathematica and a Comparison to Other Summation Methods, Preprint, viXra:1511.0247

[3] G. H. Hardy, Divergent series, Oxford at the Clarendon Press (1949)

[4] Bruce C. Brendt, Ramanujan’s Notebooks, Springer-Verlag New York Inc. (1985)

[5] John Tucciarone, The Development of the Theory of Summable Divergent Series from 1880 to 1925, Archive for History of Exact Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 1/2, (28.VI.1973), 1-40

# General Method for Summing Divergent Series Using Mathematica and a Comparison to Other Summation Methods

Abstract. We are interested in finding sums of some divergent series using the general method for summing divergent series discovered in our previous work and symbolic mathematical computation program Mathematica. We make a comparison to other five summation methods implemented in Mathematica and show that our method is the stronger method than methods of Abel, Borel, Cesaro, Dirichlet and Euler.

1. Introduction

The aim of this paper is to show readers how to sum divergent series using the summation method discovered in our previous work [1] and symbolic mathematical computation program Mathematica and make a comparison to other five summation methods implemented in Mathematica. As for prerequisites, the reader is expected to be familiar with real and complex analysis in one variable.

In this section, we summarize without proofs the relevant results on the general method for summing divergent series and give the sums of some divergent series from Hardy’s book [2] and Ramanujan’s notebook [3].

In Section 2 these sums are solved using Mathematica and general method for summing divergent series.

In Section 3 we give a table with comparison to the five most famous summation methods (Abel, Borel, Cesaro, Dirichlet and Euler) which are also used to find the sums of series from Section 2 and show that our method is the strongest (see [4] for the history of the theory of summable divergent series).

Suppose the function f has a singularity at infinity. Let’s define the general limit of f(z) as z approaches infinity, denoted by ${\lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}^{D}f(z)}$.

We obtain the following results:

(a) If f has a pole of order ${m}$ at infinity, then

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}^{D}f(z)=\int_{-1}^0 \sum_{n=0}^{m} c_n z^n dz,$

where ${f(z)=\sum_{n=-\infty}^{m}c_n z^n }$ ${(|z|>R)}$ is the Laurent series expansion of f about infinity.

(b) If f has a removable singularity at infinity, then

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}^{D}f(z)=c_0=\lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}f(z),$

where ${f(z)=\sum_{n=-\infty}^{0}c_n z^n }$ ${(|z|>R)}$ is the Laurent series expansion of f about infinity. (c) If f has essential singularity or branch point at infinity, then

$\displaystyle \lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}^{D}f(z)=c,$

where ${c}$ is constant part of any series expansion (Laurent series expansion, Puiseux series expansion, …) of f about infinity.

Finally, if ${\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n}$ is divergent series, then

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n=\lim_{z\rightarrow\infty}^D s(z),$

where ${s(n)=s_n=\sum_{k=1}^n a_k}$ is nth partial sum.

Now, we give the following sums:

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} = 1-1+1-1+...+(-1)^{n-1}+... = \frac{1}{2} \ \ \ \ \ (1)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} 2^{n-1} = 1+2+4+8+...+2^{n-1}+... = -1 \ \ \ \ \ (2)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} 2^{n-1} = 1-2+4-8+...+(-2)^{n-1}+... = \frac{1}{3} \ \ \ \ \ (3)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} a^{n-1} = 1+a+a^2+a^3+...+a^{n-1}+... = \frac{1}{1-a}(a>1) \ \ \ \ \ (4)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} n = 1-2+3-4+...+(-n)^{n-1}+... = \frac{1}{4} \ \ \ \ \ (5)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} n = 1+2+3+4+...+n+... = -\frac{1}{12} \ \ \ \ \ (6)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} 1 = 1+1+1+1+...+1+... = -\frac{1}{2} \ \ \ \ \ (7)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (n+1) = 2+3+4+5+...+(n+1)+... = -\frac{7}{12} \ \ \ \ \ (8)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (n-1) = 0+1+2+3+...+(n-1)+... = \frac{5}{12} \ \ \ \ \ (9)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \ln(n) = \ln1+\ln2+\ln3+\ln4+...+\ln(n)+... = \frac{1}{2}\ln(2\pi) \ \ \ \ \ (10)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} \ln(n) = \ln1-\ln2+\ln3-\ln4+...+(-1)^{n-1}\ln(n)+... = -\frac{1}{2}\ln(\frac{1}{2}\pi) \ \ \ \ \ (11)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \cos (n\theta) = \cos\theta+\cos2\theta+\cos3\theta+\cos4\theta+...+\cos (n\theta)+... = -\frac{1}{2} (0<\theta<2\pi) \ \ \ \ \ (12)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \sin (n\theta) = \sin\theta+\sin2\theta+\sin3\theta+\sin4\theta+...+\sin (n\theta)+... = \frac{1}{2}\cot\frac{\theta}{2} (0<\theta<2\pi) \ \ \ \ \ (13)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} \cos (n\theta) = \cos\theta-\cos2\theta+\cos3\theta-\cos4\theta+...+(-1)^{n-1}\cos (n\theta)+... = \frac{1}{2} (-\pi<\theta<\pi) \ \ \ \ \ (14)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} \sin (n\theta) = \sin\theta-\sin2\theta+\sin3\theta-\sin4\theta+...+(-1)^{n-1}\sin (n\theta)+... = \frac{1}{2}\tan\frac{\theta}{2} (-\pi<\theta<\pi) \ \ \ \ \ (15)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1} n^{2k}= 1^{2k}-2^{2k}+3^{2k}-4^{2k}+...+(-1)^{n-1}n^{2k}+... = 0 (k=1,2,3...) \ \ \ \ \ (16)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1}n^{2k-1} = 1^{2k-1}-2^{2k-1}+3^{2k-1}-4^{2k-1}+...+(-1)^{n-1}n^{2k-1}+... = \frac{2^{2k}-1}{2k} B_{2k} (k=1,2,3...) \ \ \ \ \ (17)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} n^k = 1^k+2^k+3^k+4^k+...+n^k+... = -\frac{B_{k+1}}{k+1}(k=1,2,3,...) \ \ \ \ \ (18)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} n^{-s} = 1^{-s}+2^{-s}+3^{-s}+4^{-s}+...+n^{-s}+... = \zeta(s)(Re(s)<1) \ \ \ \ \ (19)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (1-((n-1)\mod 3)) = 1+0+(-1)+1+0+(-1)+... = \frac{2}{3} \ \ \ \ \ (20)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (((n+1)\mod 3)-1) = 1+(-1)+0+1+(-1)+0+... = \frac{1}{3} \ \ \ \ \ (21)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (-1)^{n-1}(n-1)! = 1-1!+2!-3!+4!-...+(-1)^{n-1}(n-1)!+... = 1-e\cdot E_{2}(1)\approx 0,596347 \ \ \ \ \ (22)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} (n-1)! = 1+1!+2!+3!+4!+...+(n-1)!+... = 1+!(-2)\approx 0.697175 + 1.15573 \cdot i. \ \ \ \ \ (23)$

$\displaystyle \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n} = 1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{5}+...+\frac{1}{n}+... = \gamma\approx 0.57721566 \ \ \ \ \ (24)$

2. General Method for Summing Divergent Series Using Mathematica

Calculate the sum of the series (1).

Calculate the sum of the series (2).

Calculate the sum of the series (3).

Calculate the sum of the series (4).

Calculate the sum of the series (5).

Calculate the sum of the series (6).

Calculate the sum of the series (7).

Calculate the sum of the series (8).

Calculate the sum of the series (9).

Calculate the sum of the series (10).

Calculate the sum of the series (11).

Calculate the sum of the series (12).

Calculate the sum of the series (13).

Calculate the sum of the series (14).

Calculate the sum of the series (15).

Calculate the sum of the series (16).

Calculate the sum of the series (17).

Calculate the sum of the series (18).

Calculate the sum of the series (19).

Calculate the sum of the series (20).

Calculate the sum of the series (21).

Calculate the sum of the series (22).

Calculate the sum of the series (23).

Calculate the sum of the series (24).

3. Comparison to Other Summation Methods

We can obtain the same answers for some of above sums using the Regularization option for Sum as follows. For example, calculate the sum (1).

The results of our method and other five are summarized in following table:other five are summarized in following table:

It is easily seen that our method is strongest method around for summing divergent series (see for instance description of the method in Section 2 and results in above table).

References

[1] Sinisa Bubonja, General Method for Summing Divergent Series. Determination of Limits of Divergent Sequences and Functions in Singular Points, Preprint, viXra:1502.0074

[2] G. H. Hardy, Divergent series, Oxford at the Clarendon Press (1949)

[3] Bruce C. Brendt, Brendt, Ramanujan’s Notebooks, Springer-Verlag New York Inc. (1985)

[4] John Tucciarone, The Development of the Theory of Summable Divergent Series from 1880 to 1925, Archive for History of Exact Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 1/2, (28.VI.1973), 1-40

# General Method for Summing Divergent Series. Determination of Limits of Divergent Sequences and Functions in Singular Points v2

Abstract. In this work I am going to mention historical development of divergent series theory, and to give a number of different examples, as some of the methods for their summing. After that, I am going to introduce the general method, which I discovered, for summing divergent series, which we can also consider as a method for computing limits of divergent sequences and functions in divergent points, In this case, limits of sequences of their partials sums. Through the exercises, I am going to apply this method on given examples and prove its validity. Then I’m going to apply the method to compute the value of some divergent integrals.

— Algorithmization of the method —

Function ${f,g}$; EquationSolver solveEquation;

$\displaystyle n\in N;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow+\infty} z^n=\int_{-1}^0 z^n dz;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow-\infty} z^n=\int_0^1 z^n dz;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow 0^+} z^{-n}=\int_{-\infty}^{-1} z^{-n-2} dz;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow 0^-} z^{-n}=\int_1^{+\infty} z^{-n-2} dz;$

$\displaystyle a, const\in C\bigcup\{\infty\},\ \alpha\in[0,2\pi);$

if ((${f}$ has a pole at ${a}$)||(${f}$ has a removable singularity at ${a}$)) {

if ((${g}$ has a pole at ${a}$)||(${g}$ has a removable singularity at ${a}$)) {

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm}(f(z)+g(z))=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm}f(z)+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm}g(z);$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm}(c\cdot f(z))=c\cdot\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm}f(z);$

}

if (${f}$ has a removable singularity at ${a}$) {

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a} f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm} f(z)=\lim_{z\rightarrow a} f(z);$

}

if (${f}$ has a pole at ${a}$) {

if (${a==\infty}$) {

$\displaystyle f(z)=F_1(z)+F_2(z)=\sum_{k=-n}^{-1} c_k\cdot\frac{1}{z^k}+\sum_{k=0}^\infty c_k\cdot\frac{1}{z^k};$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^+}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow+e^{i\alpha}\infty}f(z)=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow+\infty}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha});$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^-}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow-e^{i\alpha}\infty}f(z)=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow-\infty}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha});$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)}f(z)=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow\infty(0)}f(r\cdot e^{i\alpha});$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)}f(z)=\frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^+}f(z)+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)^-}f(z));$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty}f(z)=\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_0^{2\pi}\lim^D_{z\rightarrow\infty(\alpha)}f(z)d\alpha;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{x\rightarrow\infty(0)^+}f(x)=\lim^D_{x\rightarrow+\infty}f(x);$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{x\rightarrow\infty(0)^-}f(x)=\lim^D_{x\rightarrow-\infty}f(x);$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow \infty(\alpha)\pm}f(z)=\sum_{k=1}^{n} c_{k}\cdot e^{i\alpha k}\frac{(\pm 1)^k}{2(k+1)}+c_0;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow \infty(\alpha)}f(z)=\sum_{k=1}^n c_k\cdot e^{i\alpha k}\frac{1+(-1)^k}{2(k+1)}+c_0;$

}

if (${a\in C}$) {

$\displaystyle f(z)=F_1(z)+F_2(z)=\sum_{k=-n}^{-1} c_k\cdot(z-a)^k+\sum_{k=0}^\infty c_k\cdot(z-a)^k;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a+e^{i\alpha}0}f(z)=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^+}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha});$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z)=\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a-e^{i\alpha}0}f(z)=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0^-}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha});$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)=\lim^D_{r\rightarrow 0(0)}f(a+r\cdot e^{i\alpha});$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)=\frac{1}{2}(\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^+}f(z)+\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^-}f(z));$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a}f(z)=\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_0^{2\pi}\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)d\alpha;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{x\rightarrow a(0)^+}f(x)=\lim^D_{x\rightarrow a^+}f(x);$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{x\rightarrow a(0)^-}f(x)=\lim^D_{x\rightarrow a^-}f(x);$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)^\pm}f(z)=\sum_{k=-n}^{-1} c_{k}\cdot e^{i\alpha k}\frac{(\pm 1)^k}{2(-k+1)}+c_0;$

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)}f(z)=\sum_{k=-n}^{-1} c_{k}\cdot e^{i\alpha k}\frac{1+(-1)^k}{2(-k+1)}+c_0;$

}

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a}f(z)=c_0;$

}

} else if((${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)\pm}f(z)}$ is not finite)||(${\lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)\pm}f(z)}$ does not exist)) { if((${f}$ can be expanded into a generalized Puiseux series about point ${a}$)&&

(!(${f(z)=\sum_{k=-n}^{+\infty}c_k(z)\cdot \frac{1}{z^k}}$)!=!(${f(z)=\sum_{k=-n}^{+\infty}c_k(z)\cdot (z-a)^k)}$)) {

${const}$=solveEquation.forConstantOfIntegration(${\int d(c_0(z))=c_0(z)}$);

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)\pm}f(z)=const;$

} else {

$\displaystyle c_0(z)=f(z);$

${const}$=solveEquation.forConstantOfIntegration(${\int d(c_0(z))=c_0(z)}$);

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a(\alpha)\pm}f(z)=const;$

}

$\displaystyle \lim^D_{z\rightarrow a}f(z)=const;$

}

— The sum of some divergent series —

— Determination of values of some divergent integrals —

# Општи метод за сумирање дивергентних редова. Одређивање граничних вриједности дивергентних низова и функција у сингуларним тачкама

Резиме. У раду ћу да се осврнем на историјски развој теорије дивергентних редова, и да наведем низ разних примјера, као и неке од метода за њихово сумирање. Након тога ћу да представим општи метод, који сам открио, за сумирање дивергентних редова, који можемо сматрати и методом за рачунање граничних вриједности дивергентних низова и функција у сингуларним тачкама, у овом случају, граничних вриједности низова њихових парцијалних сума. Кроз вјежбе ћу примјенити метод на наведене примјере и показати његову тачност. Затим ћу да примјеним метод на рачунање вриједности неких дивергентних интеграла.

Abstract. In this work I am going to mention historical development of divergent series theory, and to give a number of different examples, as some of the methods for their summing. After that, I am going to introduce the general method, which I discovered, for summing divergent series, which we can also consider as a method for computing limits of divergent sequences and functions in divergent points, In this case, limits of sequences of their partials sums. Through the exercises, I am going to apply this method on given examples and prove its validity. Then I’m going to apply the method to compute the value of some divergent integrals.

# Стручни рад из методике наставе математике (ревидирана верзија)

Сажетак. Рад је базиран на једном поглављу књиге „Математичко откриће“ аутора Ђерђа Поље (George Polya, 1887-1985), релативно непознатог нашој читалачкој публици, иначе једног од најбољих методичара и педагога. Циљ рада је да се читаоцима представе идеје и погледи поменутог аутора о поучавању математике а и да послужи као смјерница за даљње стручно усавршавање наставника. У раду ћу поучавање посматрати као умијеће а не као науку, навешћу његове циљеве и начела. На самом крају ћу дати сажетак ауторових напомена, које су настале на колегијима методике које је својевремено држао, као резултат промишљања о послу који наставник свакодневно обавља и његовој позицији, познатих под називом „десет заповијести за наставнике“.

Abstract. The work is based on a chapter of the book called „Mathematical discovery“ by George Polya (1887-1985), quite unknown to our reading society and also one of the greatest methodologist and pedagogue. Main point of this work is to present ideas and views of this author to readers and it is about mathematics. Also, it can help us teaching as a guide line for further improvement of teachers. In this work I will consider teaching as a skill and not a science, I will give his aims and principles. On the very end, I will give a short review of the autor’s hints, that were created at collegiums of methodology. That were lead by him, as a result of thinking about work that a teacher does every day, in his position, known as “ten commandments for teachers”.

http://www.imvibl.org/dmbl/dmbl.htm

# LaTeX2WPSC – LaTeX у wordpress.com конвертор

Како да вам опишем своје одушевљење када сам након гледања видео снимка предавања аустралијанског математичара Terrence Tao-а, претражујући интернет открио његов блог: http://terrytao.wordpress.com/ !

Драге колеге, сјећате ли се колико смо се обрадовали када смо открили да wordpress.com „разумије“ LaTeX (видјети коментаре испод чланка). Да ли вам је досадило куцање математичких формула користећи $Latex и$? Шта бисте рекли када бих вам рекао да можете куцати чланак у свом омиљеном LaTeX едитору и након тога га поставити на свој блог .wordpress.com

Вјероватно сте кликнули на линк и бар летимично прегледали Теријев блог. У лијевој бочној траци под насловом SOFTWARE имате сљедећи линк: LaTeX to WordPress. Пратећи упутства са линка можете да преузмете и користите програм LaTeX2WP аутора Luca Trevisan-а и његовог сарадника Radu Grigore-а који конвертује LaTeX у  wordpress.com. Програм је направљен да конвертује текстове писане на енглеском језику.

Пошто је програм под ОЈЛ (GPL) лиценцом, прилагодио сам га да конвертује LaTeX документе писане ћирилицом на српском језику (касније ћу вам објаснити како можете да га модификујете да конвертује документе писане латиницом). Програм можете да преузмете овдје: http://sourceforge.net/projects/latex2wpsc/ .

Прво инсталирајте Python 2.7.x ако користите WindowsLinux-у га већ имате инсталираног). Распакујте folder latex2wpsc.1.0.0.zip у Home Folder (или у C:\ у Windows-у). Да тестирате програм отворите терминал и куцајте (у Windows-у отворите Command Prompt и исто куцајте на одзивни знак C:\>):


$cd latex2wpsc.1.0.0 /latex2wpsc.1.0.0$ python latex2wpsc.py example.tex



Након тога, отворите фајл example.html у неком текстуалном едитору и прекопирајте код у ваш wordpress.com едитор (не тамо гдје иначе куцате текст; кликните на Text и ту прекопирајте код). Прегледајте чланак, видјећете да је све на енглеском језику осим назива „Теорема“, „Лема“ итд. који су на српском језику исписани ћирилицом. То је тако јер је example.tex писан на енглеском језику. Овако изгледа чланак писан ћирилицом на српском језику у LaTeX-у, конвертован у wordpress.comhttp://wp.me/p1XmGK-tP .

Постоји и друга могућност (нећемо је посебно коментарисати) да се чланак писан у LaTeX-у постави на wordpress.com:

.

Да бисте написали чланак и конвертовали га, потребно је да у истом фолдеру имате ваш .tex документ и сљедеће фајлове:

• latex2wpsc.py: програм за конверзију;
• sbstyle.py: овдје су подешене разне опције у вези изгледа околина типа „теорема“ и „доказ“, форматирањa текста, дефиниције макроа итд; његовом модификацијом можете подесити свој властити стил;
• macrosblog.tex: дефинише LaTeX команде у вези боја, линкова и слика које ће програм де препозна када буде вршио конверзију; такође омогућава да излазни документ добијен у LaTeX едитору-у изгледа исто као и резултат конверзије (осим ако је у .py фајловима подешен другачији стил, што овдје јесте случај);

Користите фајл post-template.tex као полазну тачку у писању вашег чланка (код из фајла прекопирајте у ваш .tex фајл), сав LaTeX код се пише између \begin{document} и \end{document}.

У програму су дефинисане сљедеће околине типа „теорема“ и типа „доказ“: аxiom, definition, theorem, proposition, lemma, corollary, conjecture, example, exercise, problem, task и remark; proof, solution и instruction (аксиома, дефиниција, теорема, тврђење, лема, посљедица, хипотеза, примјер, вјежба, проблем, задатак и напомена; доказ, рјешење и упутство). Додавањем кода у .py фајловима, можете да додајете нове околине, по потреби. Да бисте написали неки текст унутар околине одговарајућег типа, користите сљедећу синтаксу:

\begin{име_околине}[додатак_заглављу]
текст
\end{име_околине}.

Да бисте у потпуности истражили могућности које програм пружа, проучите горе наведене фајлове укључујући example.tex и прочитајте readme.txt. Можете и сами да вршите неке измјене дијелова HTML кода у набројаним .py фајловима да бисте подесили изглед конверзијом добијене странице (вашег чланка на блогу).

Да бисте подесили програм да конвертује фајлове писане на српском језику латиничним писмом, треба да:

1.  У фајлу macrosblog.tex измијените сљедећу линију кода (умјесто T2A куцајте T1): \usepackage[T2A]{fontenc} ;
2. Прекуцајте све ћирилићне називе у фајловима латиницом.

Надам се да ћете уживати у једном потпуно новом доживљају писања чланака!

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